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Morus alba

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White mulberry
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Moraceae
Genus: Morus
Species:
M. alba
Binomial name
Morus alba
L. 1753
Subspecies
  • Morus alba var. alba
  • Morus alba var. multicaulis (Perr.) Loudon
Synonyms[1]
  • Morus atropurpurea Roxb.
  • Morus chinensis Lodd. ex Loudon
  • Morus intermedia Perr.
  • Morus latifolia Poir.
  • Morus multicaulis (Perr.) Perr.
  • Morus tatarica L.

Morus alba, known as white mulberry, common mulberry and silkworm mulberry,[2] is a fast-growing, small to medium-sized mulberry tree which grows to 10–20 m (33–66 ft) tall. It is generally a short-lived tree with a lifespan comparable to that of humans, although there are some specimens known to be more than 250 years old.[3] The species is native to China and India[4] and is widely cultivated and naturalized elsewhere (including United States, Mexico, Australia, Kyrgyzstan, Argentina, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and many others).[5][6][7][8][9][10]

The white mulberry is widely cultivated to feed the silkworms employed in the commercial production of silk. It is also notable for the rapid release of its pollen, which is launched at greater than half the speed of sound.[11] Its berries are edible when ripe.

Description

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Iranian fruits
Leaves and fruit

On young, vigorous shoots, the leaves may be up to 30 cm (12 in) long, and deeply and intricately lobed, with the lobes rounded. On older trees, the leaves are generally 5–15 cm (2.0–5.9 in) long, unlobed, cordate at the base and rounded to acuminate at the tip, and serrated on the margins. Generally, the trees are deciduous in temperate regions, but trees grown in tropical regions may be evergreen.[citation needed]

The flowers are single-sex catkins; male catkins are 2–3.5 cm (0.8–1.4 in) long, and female catkins 1–2 cm (0.4–0.8 in) long. Male and female flowers are usually found on separate trees although they may occur on the same tree.[12][13] The fruit is 1–1.5 cm (0.4–0.6 in) long. In the wild it is deep purple, but in many cultivated plants it varies from white to pink. It is sweet but bland, unlike the more intense flavor of the red mulberry and black mulberry. The seeds are widely dispersed in the droppings of birds that eat the fruit.[5][6][14]

The white mulberry is scientifically notable for the rapid plant movement involved in pollen release from its catkins. The stamens act as catapults, releasing stored elastic energy in just 25 μs. The resulting movement is approximately 380 miles per hour (610 km/h), about half the speed of sound, making it the fastest known movement in the plant kingdom.[11]

Cultivation

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Mulberry cultivation is generally found in both tropical and temperate regions, although the temperature of 24-28 °C is ideal for cultivating mulberry. Mulberry thrives from 28 °N and 55 °N latitude under varying climatic conditions ranging from temperate and tropical situated north of the equator. It grows well in areas where annual rainfall varies between 600 and 2500 millimetres with a minimum of nine to 13 hours of sunshine per day. Mulberry can be grown up to 4000 meters above sea level. Mulberry blooms well in warm, rich, fertile, well-drained, loamy to clayey soils, porous with strong moisture-holding ability. The optimal soil pH range is 6.2-6.8. Because mulberry is a hardy crop, the soil moisture can be used to a greater extent by these plants. However, the analysis of India's soils stated that the status of sodium (Na), potassium (K), phosphorus (P) should be set. When some deviation occurs then the insects or fungi will attack mulberry plants.[15]

Although the trees can be reproduced by seed, to maintain the proprieties of the mothertree, mulberry are usually reproduced by stem cutting, or sometimes by grafting[1]. Depending on what the mulberry trees are used for, production of fodder, timber, leaves for silkworms or fruit, several cultivation systems are possible, such as hedges, trees or pollarded trees.[16]

The tree is vigorous and characterized by good disease resistance, as many parts of the tree (bark, leaves, etc.) are rich in antimicriobial and antifungal compounds.[17]

Taxonomy

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Two varieties of Morus alba are recognized:[5]

  • Morus alba var. alba
  • Morus alba var. multicaulis

History

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Mulberry leaves placed on trays with silkworms (Liang Kai's Sericulture c. 1200s)

Cultivation of white mulberry to nourish silkworms began more than 4,700 years ago in China and has since been introduced in other countries. The Ancient Greeks and Romans cultivated the mulberry for silkworms. At least as early as 220 AD, Emperor Elagabalus wore a silk robe.[18] It was introduced into other parts of Europe in the twelfth century and into Latin America after the Spanish conquest in the fifteenth century.[19] In 2002, 6,260 km2 of land were devoted to the species in China.[6]

It has been grown widely from the Indian subcontinent[6] west through Afghanistan and Iran to southern Europe for more than a thousand years for leaves to feed silkworms.[14]

More recently, it has become widely naturalized in disturbed areas such as roadsides and the edges of tree lots, along with urban areas in much of North America, where it hybridizes readily with the locally native red mulberry (Morus rubra). There is now serious concern for the long-term genetic viability of the red mulberry because of extensive hybridization in some areas.[20]

The species is now extensively planted and widely naturalized throughout the warm temperate world and in subarctic regions as well, and would survive in elevations as high as 4,000 metres (13,000 ft). They thrive in mildly acidic, well drained, sandy loam and clayey loam soils, though they can withstand poor soils as well.[19]

Toxicity

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Tests on laboratory rats have not found mulberry extract to present significant toxicity.[21][22]

According to a coroner's report, Lori McClintock, wife of US politician Tom McClintock, died in December 2021 from dehydration due to gastroenteritis caused by "adverse effects of white mulberry leaf ingestion"; the leaf is used as a dietary supplement or herbal remedy for weight loss and diabetes.[23]

Uses

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Ppongnip-cha (mulberry leaf tea)

Leaves

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White mulberry leaves are the preferred feedstock for silkworms (Bombyx mori), and sericolture was therefore one of the main reason of the expansion of the cultivation of this tree. White mulberry are also cut to feed livestock (cattle, goats, etc.) because of its interesting proprieties. Mulberry could be an interesting alternative for fodder production as it is rich in protein and energy, and has a high degree of digestibility, in addition to being a fast and vigourous growing plant.[24] Furthermore, the polyphenolic content of the leaves could have a positive impact on animals health and at the same time reducing their methan emissions.[25]

The leaves are prepared as tea in Korea. In Asia leaves are also consumed for medical purposes, which are used as an anti-hyperglycemic supplement for diabetes patients.[26] In traditional Chinese medicine, bark, leaves and the fruits are used to treat fever, lower blood pressure, protect liver damage, improve eyesight, and facilitate discharge of urine.[27]

Fruits

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The fruit are also interesting for human consumption. They can be eaten fresh, and they are appreciated for their sweet taste, but the fragile skin of the fruits makes storage and marketing difficult. Nevertheless, the fruit can be processed in several ways to ensure its preservation, such as dried, made into syrups, wines or spirits.[28] For example, in Azerbaijan, where the mulberries are part of the culture, the fruits are transformed into a dense syrup called "doshab" or "bakmaz"; or transformed into a potent liqueur, called “Tut araghi”[29]. In China the fruits are transformed into a paste called sangshengao, which is used to make tea.[28]  

Wood

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In India, mulberry wood is used to make sports equipment, furniture, household utensils and agricultural implements.[30]

Landscaping

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For landscaping, a fruitless mulberry was developed from a clone for use in the production of silk in the U.S. The industry never materialized, but the mulberry variety is now used as an ornamental tree where shade is desired without the fruit.[31] White mulberry, Morus alba 'Pendula', is used as an ornamental plant.[32] It was planted at several grand stations built along the Lackawanna Railroad in New Jersey during the late 1800s and early 1900s. The species is a lawn tree across the desert cities of the southwestern United States, prized for its shade and also for its cylindrical berry clusters composed of sweet, purplish-white fruits.[33] The plant's pollen is problematic in some cities where it has been blamed for an increase in hay fever.[34][35][36]

Nutritional values

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The fruits are not only interesting for the human consumption as they are sweet, but their nutritional content makes them a healthy alternative food source. The fruits are richer in proteins than other normally consumed berries (1.44g/100g of fresh fruits), containing all 9 essential amino acids. They are a source of sugar, which consists mainly in fructose and glucose. The fruits are rich in ascorbic acid (vitamin C), but also other vitamins are present, for example thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, vitamin A, vitamin B6, vitamin E, and vitamin K. The overall mineral content is also good, with the fruits being rich in potassium, phosphorus and calcium.[37] Many bioactive compounds, as anthocyanins, flavonoids, or phenolic acids, which are known for their antioxidant effects and the reduction potential they have againt the risk of developing cancer or cardiovascular diseases, are also found in the fruits.[37][38]The leaves are also known to reduce hangover from alcohol.[39]

[edit]
  • Morus alba - MHNT
    Morus alba - MHNT
  • Fruitless mulberry trees
    Fruitless mulberry trees
  • Pennsylvania state champion Morus alba at Longwood Gardens.
    Pennsylvania state champion Morus alba at Longwood Gardens.
  • Leaves and male flowers in the spring.
    Leaves and male flowers in the spring.
  • Leaf variation
    Leaf variation
  • Morus alba flowers in India
    Morus alba flowers in India
  • Flowers and leaves in Spain
    Flowers and leaves in Spain
  • Fruits in India
    Fruits in India
  • 'Pendula' cultivar in Iran
    'Pendula' cultivar in Iran
  • A tree planted by Edmond James de Rothschild in 1922 in attempt to build silk industry in Israel
    A tree planted by Edmond James de Rothschild in 1922 in attempt to build silk industry in Israel
  • Mulberries fallen to the ground in peak season.
    Mulberries fallen to the ground in peak season.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "Morus alba L.". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew – via The Plant List. Note that this website has been superseded by World Flora Online
  2. ^ Morus alba L. by Weeds of Australia - Biosecurity Queensland Edition (Queensland Government)
  3. ^ "The thickest, tallest, and oldest white mulberry trees (Morus alba)".
  4. ^ Patel, Raman; Hazra, Taposhi; Rana, Rajendra Singh; Hazra, Manoshi; Bera, Subir; Khan, Mahasin Ali (2021). "First fossil record of mulberry from Asia". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 292: 104459. Bibcode:2021RPaPa.29204459P. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2021.104459. ISSN 0034-6667.
  5. ^ a b c Wu, Zhengyi; Zhou, Zhe-Kun; Gilbert, Michael G. "Morus alba". Flora of China. Vol. 5. Retrieved 27 June 2013 – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
  6. ^ a b c d "Morus alba". Flora of China. 5: 23. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
  7. ^ Wunderlin, Richard P. (1997). "Morus alba". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 3. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
  8. ^ "Morus alba". County-level distribution map from the North American Plant Atlas (NAPA). Biota of North America Program (BONAP). 2014.
  9. ^ Atlas of Living Australia, Morus alba L., White Mulberry[permanent dead link‍]
  10. ^ SEINet, Southwestern Biodiversity, Arizona chapter photos, description, distribution map
  11. ^ a b Taylor, Philip; Gwyneth Card; James House; Michael Dickinson; Richard Flagan (2006-03-01). "High-speed pollen release in the white mulberry tree, Morus alba L". Sexual Plant Reproduction. 19 (1): 19–24. doi:10.1007/s00497-005-0018-9. S2CID 39703983.
  12. ^ Schaffner, John H. 1919. The nature of the diecious condition in Morus alba and Salix amygdaloides. Ohio Journal of Science 18: 101-125.
  13. ^ Purdue University. Center for New Crops & Plant Products. NewCROP: Morus alba.
  14. ^ a b Bean, W. J. (1978). Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles. John Murray ISBN 0-7195-2256-0.
  15. ^ Rohela, Gulab Khan, et al. "Mulberry (Morus spp.): An ideal plant for sustainable development." Trees, Forests and People 2 (2020): 100011.
  16. ^ Kerstin, Mechlem (2006-11), "Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)", Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-923169-0, retrieved 2024-12-04 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ Sharma, S. K., and K. K. Zote. "MULBERRY-A multi purpose tree species for varied climate." Range Management and Agroforestry 31.2 (2010): 97-101.
  18. ^ Lyle, Katie Letcher (2010) [2004]. The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: How to Find, Identify, and Cook Them (2nd ed.). Guilford, CN: FalconGuides. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-59921-887-8. OCLC 560560606.
  19. ^ a b White mulberry (Morus alba) by Feedipedia.org
  20. ^ Burgess, K.S., Morgan, M., Deverno, L., & Husband, B. C. (2005). Asymmetrical introgression between two Morus species (M. alba, M. rubra) that differ in abundance. Molec. Ecol. 14: 3471–3483.
  21. ^ Hong, Min; Lu, Min; Qian, Yimin; Wei, Liping; Zhang, Yaqun; Pan, Xueying; Li, Hua; Chen, Huaying; Tang, Naping (2021). "A 90-day Sub-chronic Oral Toxicity Assessment of Mulberry Extract in Sprague Dawley Rats". INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing. 58. SAGE Publications. doi:10.1177/00469580211056044. ISSN 0046-9580. PMC 8613892. PMID 34812659.
  22. ^ Li, Yuzhe; Zhang, Xiaopeng; Liang, Chunlai; Hu, Jing; Yu, Zhou (2018). "Safety evaluation of mulberry leaf extract: Acute, subacute toxicity and genotoxicity studies". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 95: 220–226. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2018.03.007. ISSN 0273-2300. PMID 29530616. S2CID 4859424.
  23. ^ Young, Samantha (August 24, 2022). "Congressman's wife died after taking herbal remedy marketed". NBC News. Kaiser Health News.
  24. ^ "3940 - Futterbäume und -sträucher - Publikationen - Pflanzenbau, Umwelt, Natur, Landschaft - Hecken, Feld- und Ufergehölze - AGRIDEA". agridea.abacuscity.ch (in German). Retrieved 2024-11-10.
  25. ^ Hassan, Faiz-ul; Arshad, Muhammad Adeel; Li, Mengwei; Rehman, Muhammad Saif-ur; Loor, Juan J.; Huang, Jiaxiang (2020-11). "Potential of Mulberry Leaf Biomass and Its Flavonoids to Improve Production and Health in Ruminants: Mechanistic Insights and Prospects". Animals. 10 (11): 2076. doi:10.3390/ani10112076. ISSN 2076-2615. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  26. ^ Katsube, Takuya; Imawaka, Naoto; Kawano, Yasuhiro; Yamazaki, Yoshimitsu; Shiwaku, Kuninori; Yamane, Yosuke (2006-07-01). "Antioxidant flavonol glycosides in mulberry (Morus alba L.) leaves isolated based on LDL antioxidant activity". Food Chemistry. 97 (1): 25–31. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.03.019. ISSN 0308-8146.
  27. ^ Bae, Song-Hwan; Suh, Hyung-Joo (2007-08-01). "Antioxidant activities of five different mulberry cultivars in Korea". LWT - Food Science and Technology. 40 (6): 955–962. doi:10.1016/j.lwt.2006.06.007. ISSN 0023-6438.
  28. ^ a b Singhal, Brij Kishore, et al. "Approaches to industrial exploitation of mulberry (Mulberry sp.) fruits." J. Fruit Ornam. Plant Res 18.1 (2010): 83-99.
  29. ^ "8.3 Silk Road - The Origin of the Mulberry Trees - Farid Alakbarli and Iskandar Aliyev". www.azer.com. Retrieved 2024-11-08.
  30. ^ Kandylis, K.; Hadjigeorgiou, I.; Harizanis, P. (2008-03-15). "The nutritive value of mulberry leaves (Morus alba) as a feed supplement for sheep". Tropical Animal Health and Production. 41 (1): 17–24. doi:10.1007/s11250-008-9149-y. ISSN 0049-4747.
  31. ^ Howstuffworks.com
  32. ^ NRCS. "Morus alba". PLANTS Database. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
  33. ^ Little, Elbert L. (1994) [1980]. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees: Western Region (Chanticleer Press ed.). Knopf. p. 424. ISBN 0394507614.
  34. ^ Pollen Library, White Mulberry (Morus alba)
  35. ^ Thermo Scientific,
  36. ^ University of Arizona Cooperative Extension, Yavapai County, Plants That May Cause Allergies in Yavapai County Archived 2016-06-16 at the Wayback Machine
  37. ^ a b Yuan, Qingxia, and Longyan Zhao. "The Mulberry (Morus alba L.) Fruit A Review of Characteristic Components and Health Benefits." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 65.48 (2017): 10383-10394.
  38. ^ Sánchez-Salcedo, Eva M.; Mena, Pedro; García-Viguera, Cristina; Martínez, Juan José; Hernández, Francisca (2015-01-01). "Phytochemical evaluation of white (Morus alba L.) and black (Morus nigra L.) mulberry fruits, a starting point for the assessment of their beneficial properties". Journal of Functional Foods. 12: 399–408. doi:10.1016/j.jff.2014.12.010. ISSN 1756-4646.
  39. ^ Koyama, Akio; Yamanouchi, Hiroaki; Machii, Hiroaki (2001). "Screening of Mulberry Genotypes Suitable for Fruit Production and Development of High-Yielding Strains with Large Fruits". Japan Agricultural Research Quarterly: JARQ. 35 (1): 59–66. doi:10.6090/jarq.35.59.
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