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Principality of Moscow

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Grand Principality of Moscow
Великое княжество Московское
1263–1547
Double-headed eagle on the seal of Ivan III of
Growth of Moscow from 1300 to 1547
Growth of Moscow from 1300 to 1547
CapitalMoscow
Common languagesRussian
Religion
Russian Orthodoxy
Demonym(s)Muscovite
GovernmentMonarchy
Monarch 
• 1263–1303
Daniel (first)
• 1533–1547
Ivan IV (last)
LegislatureBoyar Duma
Historical eraLate Middle Ages
• Established
1263
• Elevated to grand principality
1363
• Elevated to tsardom
1547
Area
1505[1]2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi)
CurrencyRuble, denga
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Vladimir-Suzdal
Tsardom of Russia
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The Principality of Moscow[a] (Russian: Московское княжество), from 1363 the Grand Principality of Moscow[b][c] (Russian: Великое княжество Московское), was a medieval Russian principality. Its capital was the city of Moscow.

Moscow became a separate principality when Daniel (r. 1263–1303), the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, received the city and surrounding area as an appanage.[6] By the end of the 13th century, Moscow was one of the leading principalities within the grand principality of Vladimir, alongside Tver.[7] A struggle between the princes of Moscow and Tver began after Mikhail of Tver became the grand prince in 1304.[8] Yury (r. 1303–1325) contested the title and was later made grand prince in 1318 by the khan of the Golden Horde, who held suzerainty over the princes. However, Yury lost the title four years later.[9]

Ivan I (r. 1325–1340) won back the title of grand prince and was able to collect tribute for the khan from other Russian princes, which increased Moscow's wealth.[10] The seat of the Russian Orthodox Church was also moved to Moscow, which later gave it the status as the spiritual center.[11] Ivan I defeated Tver and secured the grand princely title for his sons Simeon (r. 1340–1353) and Ivan II (r. 1353–1359). Following the death of Ivan II, the title was temporarily lost until Dmitry (r. 1359–1389) regained it, after which Moscow was elevated to a grand principality.[12] He also inflicted a milestone defeat on the Tatars in 1380, which greatly increased Moscow's prestige.[13]

As the Golden Horde declined, its hegemony was increasingly challenged.[14] Vasily I (r. 1389–1425) focused on enlarging his principality, but was forced to resume paying tribute following a Tatar invasion.[15] Vasily II (r. 1425–1462) consolidated his control of Moscow after an internal struggle and his reign saw the declaration of de facto autocephaly by the Russian Church.[16] Ivan III (r. 1462–1505) absorbed nearly all of the Russian states and laid the foundations for a centralized state,[17] leading to the end of the appanage period and the beginning of a new period in Russian history known as Muscovite Russia.[18] He also stopped paying tribute and his defeat of the Tatars in 1480 traditionally marks the end of Tatar suzerainty.[19] Vasily III (r. 1505–1533) completed his father's policy of annexing the remaining appanages,[20] and his son Ivan IV (r. 1533–1584) was crowned as tsar in 1547, thereby officially proclaiming the Tsardom of Russia.[21]

Name

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See also: Moscow § Etymology

The English names Moscow and Muscovy, for the city, the principality, and the river, are derived from post-classical Latin Moscovia, Muscovia, and ultimately from the Old Russian fully vocalized accusative form Московь, Moskov'.[22][23] Moscow is first mentioned under the year 1147 in the locative case (na Moskvě).[22] The modern Russian form, Moskva, first appears in the 14th century.[22]

The oldest endonyms used in documents were Rus (Russian: Русь) and the "Russian land" (Russian: Русская земля, romanized: Russkaya zemlya).[24] The 14th-century Zadonshchina, which belongs to the Kulikovo cycle of works, stresses the unity of the Russian princes and describes the principalities of Moscow, Novgorod, and others as being part of the "Russian land".[25][26] A new form of the name became common by the 15th century; the vernacular Rus was transformed into Ros(s)iya or Rus(s)iya, and borrowed from Greek: Ρωσία, romanized: Rosía or Latin: Russia.[d][28][27][29] In the 1480s, the scribes Ivan Cherny and Mikhail Medovartsev mention Russia under the name Rosia (Росиа), and Medovartsev also mentions the sceptre "of Russian lordship" (Росийскаго господства, Rosiyskago gospodstva).[30]

In the 14th century, the grand princes of Moscow began to style themselves as the rulers of all Russia.[31] During his consolidation of territories, Ivan III adopted the title of sovereign (gosudar) of all Russia.[32][33] After rejecting Mongol suzerainty, he also styled himself as autocrat (samoderzhets).[34] In his foreign correspondence, he adopted the title of tsar and rejected the offer of kingship by the Holy Roman Emperor;[34] however, it would not be until 1547 that the title of tsar became official with the coronation of his grandson, Ivan IV.[35] Ivan III also laid claim to the legacy of Kievan Rus', which led to conflicts with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[36] The Russian state was later also known in Western Europe as Muscovy[e] under Polish–Lithuanian influence, and the use of both names persisted until the early 18th century.[36]

History

[edit]

Origins

[edit]

Moscow is first mentioned in chronicles under the year 1147, as part of the principality of Rostov-Suzdal.[37] The importance of Moscow greatly increased during the second half of the 12th century, and it was converted into a fortified gorod (stronghold) in the 1150s.[38] On the death of Vsevolod III in 1212, Moscow appears to have been passed to his son Yury, who succeeded his father as the grand prince of Vladimir.[38] During the Mongol invasions of 1237–1238, Moscow was sacked following the destruction of Ryazan.[38] The city is not mentioned again until the late 13th century.[38]

The first prince of Moscow was Daniel (r. 1263–1303),[39] the youngest son of Aleksandr Nevsky, and he was given Moscow as an otchina, where he established a local branch of Rurikid princes.[f][6] Daniel is mentioned under the year 1282 as taking part in a feudal war between his two older brothers.[40] The 16th-century Book of Royal Degrees says that Daniel was given Moscow on his father's death in 1263.[40] The size of the original territory of the Moscow principality is not known, but it likely encompassed the basin of the upper Moskva River, stretching approximately between the eastern influx of the Gzhelka and the western influx of the Ruza.[40] The northeast of the territory consisted of the basin of the upper Klyazma.[40]

By the turn of the century, Moscow was one of the leading principalities within Vladimir-Suzdal.[41] Daniel defeated Ryazan in 1301, after which Kolomna and Serpukhov were incorporated into the Moscow principality.[42] Pereyaslavl was also temporarily annexed to Moscow, and after Daniel's death, his sons seized Mozhaysk in 1304.[43] At this point, the territory of the principality had increased almost three-fold and included the entire Moskva River along with its tributaries, allowing Moscow to become self-sufficient.[44] Its southern border included a large stretch of the Oka, from Serpukhov to the east of Kolomna, which gave it some protection from Tatar incursions.[45] To the east, there was a dense forest zone which functioned as a natural barrier.[46] Moscow also had access to the northern areas of Ryazan and direct access to Vladimir.[45] It was also provided with a river network that facilitated trade.[46]

Yury

[edit]

Yury (r. 1303–1325) began his reign with a struggle against Tver for succession to the grand principality.[47] According to traditional succession practices, the throne was to be passed to Andrey's eldest cousin, Mikhail of Tver.[48] As Daniel had died before he could become grand prince, his descendants were barred from the title.[g][48] Yury decided to contest Mikhail's claim to the title, but ultimately the decision went to Toqta, the khan of the Golden Horde, who held suzerainty over the principalities and later confirmed Mikhail as the grand prince in 1305.[49] In 1306, Yury established his authority over Ryazan with support from the khan as part of the Tatars' strategy to adjust the balance of power in the conflict between Moscow and Tver.[50] Mikhail of Tver attempted to consolidate his power and was confirmed as the prince of Novgorod in 1307, but Yury retained control of Pereyaslavl and was able to gain control of Nizhny Novgorod.[51] Mikhail marched against Moscow in 1308, but the Muscovites were able to stand their ground.[52] Mikhail also failed to win the support of the Church, and when he launched an expedition to Nizhny Novgorod, his army was stopped by Metropolitan Peter in Vladimir.[53]

After Toqta died in 1312, Mikhail visited Sarai to renew his patent and pay respects to the new khan, Özbeg, staying there for two years.[54] In his absence, the Novgorodians launched a revolt against Mikhail's governors and sent an appeal to Yury, who was confirmed as prince in 1315.[h][55] However, Mikhail was able to convince the khan to summon Yury and remove him from the political scene.[56] Mikhail was able to establish his authority in Novgorod once again, but in 1317, Yury returned with a patent for the grand princely title, a Tatar army, and a Tatar wife, who was the sister of the khan.[57] Kavgady, the chief representative of the khan, sent his ambassadors to Tver to scare Mikhail into submission, but Mikhail's army proceeded to defeat Yury's army in December 1317.[58] In early 1318, the two parties met on the Volga for another battle, but they reached an agreement.[59] Kavgady and Yury laid their accusations against Mikhail and a formal trial took place at the end of the year.[60] Mikhail was executed and Yury was made the grand prince.[61]

Little is known about Yury's reign as grand prince, but relations between Moscow and Tver soon improved and a treaty was concluded in 1319 between Yury and Dmitry of Tver.[62] However, in 1321, a representative of the khan instructed Yury to march on Tver.[63] The two forces met on the Volga and a battle was narrowly avoided.[63] In the treaty, Dmitry agreed to refrain from making himself the grand prince and he paid the tribute owed to the Tatars.[63] Yury was then summoned to Novgorod, and instead of proceeding to Sarai with the tribute, he led the defence of the republic against Swedish forces.[64] As a result, Dmitry went to Sarai and received the patent for the grand princely title in 1322.[65] Yury was then summoned by Özbeg, and on his way to Sarai, Dmitry's brother Aleksandr robbed him in the Rzhev area and forced him to flee to Pskov.[65] Yury finally visited Sarai in 1325 to face the consequences, but Dmitry of Tver murdered him to avenge his father.[66] The following year, the khan ordered his execution.[66]

Ivan I

[edit]
The Moscow Kremlin under Ivan Kalita, painting by Apollinary Vasnetsov (1921)

Ivan I (r. 1325–1340) became prince following the murder of Yury, while the title of grand prince went to Aleksandr of Tver.[67] After the residents of Tver launched a revolt against Tatar rule in 1327, Özbeg Khan dispatched a punitive force led by Ivan and Aleksandr of Suzdal, causing Aleksandr of Tver to flee to Lithuania.[66] Afterwards, Ivan presented himself before Özbeg and was given the title of grand prince.[68] Özbeg divided the principalities of Vladimir and Novgorod between Aleksandr of Suzdal and Ivan, and upon Aleksandr's death in 1331, Ivan became the sole grand prince.[69] Aleksandr of Tver eventually returned to Tver and was given a full pardon and reinstated as prince by the khan.[70] However, Aleksandr was soon recalled to Sarai in 1339, where he was executed.[71] The death of Aleksandr marked the end of the struggle between Moscow and Tver, and Ivan's nephew-in-law, Konstantin, continued to rule Tver as a loyal servant.[72]

To secure his position, Ivan began absorbing surrounding principalities.[68] In particular, Ivan was credited by his grandson Dmitry Donskoy in his will with purchasing the principalities of Beloozero, Galich and Uglich.[73] Ivan also developed Moscow to attract people and produce the resources needed to maintain his position, a policy reflected in his sobriquet, Kalita (lit. 'moneybag').[68] As grand prince, Ivan collected tribute from not only his own possessions but also from other Russian princes.[74] The khan at the start of Ivan's reign was content with allowing the Muscovite prince to enjoy undisputed supremacy.[75] As a result, Ivan was able to use the funds he acquired to develop Moscow.[74] He also had access to Novgorod's wealth, which helped him to pay the tribute; however, relations with Novgorod worsened following the election of a new archbishop in 1330, which paved the way for a pro-Lithuanian faction in the city.[76]

At the beginning of Ivan's reign, the new Russian Orthodox metropolitan, Peter, moved his residence to Moscow in 1325.[77] During Peter's tenure in Moscow, Ivan laid the foundation for the Dormition Cathedral, which was built using stone.[78] Peter had intended to make Moscow his burial place, and therefore the religious center of the country, and he died in 1326.[78][79] Peter was succeeded by Theognostus, who, like his predecessor, pursued policies that supported the rise of Moscow.[80][81] During the first four years of his tenure, the Dormition Cathedral was completed and an additional four stone churches were constructed.[80] Theognostus also proceeded with the canonization of Peter in 1339, which helped to increase Moscow's prestige.[80][68] The princes of Moscow functioned as the primary protectors of the Russian Church and Moscow became a pilgrimage center.[69] Ivan even acquired an aura of sanctity in the eyes of future generations.[69]

Simeon

[edit]
Ivan I and Simeon, frescoes of the Archangel Cathedral, 1652–1666

Simeon (r. 1340–1353) succeeded his father as prince upon the latter's death.[82] Although Simeon had to contend with three rival princes for the grand princely title,[83] Özbeg had approved his father's will in 1339, indicating that he supported Simeon's succession to the grand princely throne.[84] Simeon received the patent a few months later.[85] As a result, the princes of Moscow continued to hold the title almost uninterruptedly.[84] At the start of Simeon's reign, the principality of Bryansk returned to Moscow's sphere of influence after the pro-Moscow Dmitry Romanovich was once again installed as prince.[i][87] As a demonstration of his political sympathies, Dmitry had his daughter married to Simeon's younger brother Ivan.[87] In 1352, Simeon marched into the neighboring principality of Smolensk, located to the west of Moscow, and was able to extend his authority there with the removal of the pro-Lithuanian prince, who was likely replaced with either Dmitry's son or nephew.[88][89] As a result, Simeon was able to temporarily halt the eastward expansion of Lithuania.[90] He was also able to sign a treaty with Novgorod, in which the city recognized Simeon as its prince and agreed to grant him additional tax revenues.[89]

Although the khan, Jani Beg, was prepared to support Simeon in his conflict with Lithuania, he was unwilling to provide unlimited support to Moscow, for fear that it would become too strong.[91] He permitted the grand prince to enjoy the traditional rights of the throne and to maintain his nominal authority over other princes, but he interfered in Moscow's relations with Suzdal, supported anti-Muscovite elements in Ryazan, and contributed to Tver's fragmentation.[92] When Jani Beg first occupied the throne, Simeon's cousin Konstantin took advantage of the power struggle in Sarai and took control of Nizhny Novgorod and Gorodets.[j][94] Simeon attempted to dislodge his cousin, and in 1343, he convinced the boyars of Nizhny Novgorod and Gorodets to switch allegiance, but Jani Beg returned the boyars to Konstantin and confirmed him as prince.[95] In 1352–1353, the Black Death reached Russia, which killed Simeon, his brother Andrey, along with his sons.[96] In addition, the plague killed Metropolitan Theognostus.[96] The ruling family of Moscow remained small as a result of the Black Death, and a new vertical pattern of princely succession from father to son was defined.[97]

Ivan II

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Ivan II (r. 1353–1359) went to Sarai following the death of his older brother, where he presented himself to the khan as a candidate for the patent for the grand princely title.[96] His main opponent was Konstantin of Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal, who had greater support than the rival princes before him.[96] Novgorod sent a delegation to the khan to request him to give the patent to Konstantin, due to Ivan's previous refusal to aid the Novgorodian army in besieging the Swedish-held fortress of Orekhov in 1348.[98] Despite this, Jani Beg gave the patent to Ivan due to Konstantin's dynastic links with Lithuania.[99] In 1355, Konstantin signed a treaty of friendship with Moscow and at the same time, the city of Novgorod "made peace with Prince Ivan".[100] Following Konstantin's death the same year, his eldest son Andrey succeeded him and drew a treaty with Ivan the next year.[100] In exchange for gifts, Andrey recognized the prince of Moscow as his "elder brother", or his feudal superior.[100]

During the first four years of Ivan's reign, there are no signs of any antagonism between Ivan and Grand Duke Algirdas of Lithuania.[101] Ivan did not strengthen control of his brother's gains, nor is there any indication that Ivan was interested in his former father-in-law's principality of Bryansk situated on the border.[101] In 1356, Algirdas attacked Bryansk and Smolensk, and likely took control of them.[101][102] Ivan did not provide military assistance, leading to Vasily of Smolensk to turn to the khan for assistance instead.[101] Although no formal treaty was drawn, Ivan had one of his daughters married to the son of Karijotas, the fifth eldest son of Gediminas.[103] Ivan continued his reversal of Simeon's policies by allying himself with the princes of Suzdal.[104] In addition, he supported the sons of Aleksandr of Tver and not the pro-Moscow house of Kashin.[104] Khvost, a friend of Ivan amongst the boyars, was murdered by the senior boyars, who had been staunch supporters of Simeon.[105] As a result, Ivan significantly changed his policy in 1357, first by signing a treaty with Vasily of Kashin.[106] In 1358, a joint expedition with Mozhaysk and Tver drove the Lithuanians out of Rzhev.[106] The following year, Algirdas launched an attack, regaining control of Smolensk and Rzhev while taking control of Mstislavl in the Smolensk principality.[107]

Dmitry

[edit]
Dmitry Donskoy in the Battle of Kulikovo, painting by Adolphe Yvon (1849)

Dmitry (r. 1359–1389) became prince at the age of nine following his father's death.[108] Metropolitan Alexius effectively became the ruler of Moscow, and he equated the interests of the Russian Church with those of the Moscow principality.[108][109] The murder of Berdi Beg in 1359 led to great turmoil within the Golden Horde, with repeated coups.[108] The warlord Mamai established his own ulus, exercising his authority with khans that he controlled.[108] Dmitry of Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal renewed the claim to the grand princely title, but after a period of negotiations, the khan Murad recognized Dmitry of Moscow as grand prince in 1362.[110] Alexius also approached Mamai's protégé Abdallāh and received his approval as well in order to strengthen Dmitry's claim.[110] However, Murad withdrew his recognition in response and instead recognized Dmitry of Suzdal as grand prince.[110] After the Muscovite army made a show of force, Dmitry of Suzdal abandoned his claim to the title and in 1364, he signed a treaty of friendship with Moscow.[110] Two years later, he arranged for his daughter to marry Dmitry of Moscow.[110]

After taking the throne, Mikhail II of Tver mounted a direct challenge to Moscow's pre-eminence with Lithuanian support.[110] Alexius continued to support the appanage princes of Tver against Mikhail, and by 1368, the conflict had escalated when the Muscovite army invaded Tver.[111] The Lithuanian army came to Mikhail's aid, but the new stone walls of Moscow were able to withstand the siege.[111] Dmitry launched another invasion in 1370, taking advantage of Lithuanian involvement in other conflicts.[111] Mikhail visited Mamai's court and received the patent, but was unable to enforce his claim without Lithuanian assistance.[111] Mikhail received another patent the following year, but Dmitry convinced the khan to restore him the title, while Alexius negotiated a peace treaty with Lithuania and had Dmitry's cousin Vladimir of Serpukhov married to one of the daughters of Algirdas.[111] Mikhail once again received the patent in 1375, but Dmitry retained the loyalty of the other princes, and the combined forces defeated Mikhail's army.[112] Mikhail made peace and acknowledged Dmitry as his "elder brother".[112]

Dmitry continued the "gathering of the Russian lands" to increase the population and wealth under their rule. In the process, their interests clashed with the expanding Grand Duchy of Lithuania, whose subjects were predominantly East Slavic and Orthodox. Grand Duke Algirdas of Lithuania allied himself by marriage with Tver and undertook three expeditions against Moscow (1368, 1370, 1372) but was unable to take it. The main bone of contention between Moscow and Vilnius was the large city of Smolensk.[citation needed]

Educated by Metropolitan Alexis, Dmitri posed as a champion of Orthodoxy and managed to unite the warring principalities of Rus' in his struggle against the Horde. He challenged Khan's authority and defeated his commander Mamai in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). However, the victory did not bring any short-term benefits; Tokhtamysh in 1382 sacked Moscow hoping to reassert his vested authority over his vassal, the Grand Prince, and his own Mongol hegemony, killing 24,000 people.[citation needed]

Nevertheless, Dmitri became a national hero. The memory of Kulikovo Field made the Russian population start believing in their ability to end Tatar domination and become a free people. In 1389, he passed the throne to his son Vasily I without bothering to obtain the Khan's sanction.[citation needed]

Vasily I

[edit]

Vasily I (1389–1425) continued the policies of his father. After the Horde was attacked by Tamerlane, he desisted from paying tribute to the Khan but was forced to pursue a more conciliatory policy after Edigu's incursion on Moscow in 1408. Married to the only daughter of the Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania, he attempted to avoid open conflicts with his powerful father-in-law, even when the latter annexed Smolensk. The peaceful years of his long reign were marked by the continuing expansion to the east (annexation of Nizhny Novgorod and Suzdal, 1392) and to the north (annexation of Vologda, Veliky Ustyug, and Perm of Vychegda, 1398). Nizhny Novgorod was given by the Khan of the Golden Horde as a reward for Muscovite's help against a rival.[113]

The reforms of St. Sergius triggered a cultural revival, exemplified by the icons and frescoes of the monk Andrei Rublev. Hundreds of monasteries were founded by disciples of St. Sergius in distant and inhospitable locations, including Beloozero and Solovki. Apart from their cultural functions, these monasteries were major landowners who could control the economy of an adjacent region. They served as outposts of Moscow's influence in the neighbouring principalities and republics. Another factor responsible for the expansion of the Grand Principality of Moscow was its favourable dynastic situation, in which each sovereign was succeeded by his son, while rival principalities were plagued by dynastic strife and splintered into ever-smaller polities. The only lateral branch of the House of Moscow, represented by Vladimir of Serpukhov and his descendants, was firmly anchored to the Moscow principality.[citation needed]

Vasily II

[edit]
Growth of the Moscow principality from 1300 to 1462

The situation changed with the ascension of Vasily I's successor, Vasily II (r. 1425–1462). Before long his uncle, Yuri of Zvenigorod, started to advance his claims to the throne and Monomakh's Cap. A bitter family conflict, the Muscovite War of Succession (1425–1453), erupted and rocked the country during the whole reign. After Yuri died in 1432, the claims were taken up by his sons, Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka, who pursued their claims well into the 1450s. Although he was ousted from Moscow on several occasions, taken prisoner by Olug Moxammat of Kazan, and blinded in 1446, Vasily II eventually managed to triumph over his enemies and pass the throne to his son in 1462. At his urging, a native bishop was elected as Metropolitan of Moscow, which was tantamount to a declaration of independence of the Russian Orthodox Church from the Patriarch of Constantinople (1448).[citation needed]

Ivan III

[edit]

Ivan III (r. 1462–1505) succeeded his father and his reign has been considered to mark the end of the appanage period and the beginning of a new period in Russian history known as Muscovite Russia.[114] At the start of Ivan's reign, Moscow was already the political and religious center of Russia, but Ivan vastly expanded the domain of the grand prince with the "gathering of the Russian lands".[115] After Novgorod's boyar class turned to Lithuania for support, Ivan's army defeated the Novgorodian army in 1471, after which Ivan took an oath of allegiance from Novgorod, but left its system of government in place.[116] After the Novgorodian authorities attempted to turn to Lithuania again, Ivan's army marched against the city in 1478 and the city surrendered.[116] Ivan imposed his direct rule on the city and abolished its system of government.[116] Tver offered even less resistance, and when Ivan launched a new campaign against Tver in 1485, its prince fled to Lithuania.[116] Ivan incorporated other appanages into the grand principality, while other princes acknowledged him as their overlord. As a result, Ivan began to rule Russia as a unified monarchy.[117]

Eastern Europe at the time of Ivan III's death in 1505

Having consolidated the core of Russia under his rule, Ivan III became the first Moscow ruler to adopt the titles of tsar[118] and "Ruler of all Rus'". Ivan competed with his powerful northwestern rival, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, for control over some of the semi-independent former principalities of Kievan Rus' in the upper Dnieper and Donets river basins. Through the defections of some princes, border skirmishes, and the long inconclusive Russo-Lithuanian Wars that ended only in 1503, Ivan III was able to push westward, and the Moscow state tripled in size under his rule.[citation needed]

Vasily III

[edit]

Vasily III (r. 1505–1533) continued his father's policy of annexing the other appanages.[119] He annexed Pskov and Ryazan in 1510 and 1521, respectively, completing the process of "gathering" (Great) Russian lands.[120] During a war with Lithuania, Vasily captured Smolensk in 1514, and a peace treaty in 1522 confirmed Moscow's gains.[121] Vasily also advanced the Russian border in the east and supported the pro-Russian party in the Khanate of Kazan.[121]

Politics

[edit]
The Dormition Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin

The unification of Russia gave rise to a new political system characterized by the dominance of the grand prince, who viewed the country as his personal patrimony.[122] The historian Sergey Platonov wrote: "The authority of the Moscow princes took on the character of the authority of a lord of the manor over its land and people... The prince was not only the ruler of the country; he was also its owner".[122] During the appanage period, princes and their retinues played a major administrative and social role in their principalities; however, with the rise of the grand principality of Moscow, the role of those princes were subordinated to the grand prince and the emerging state apparatus.[122] Traditional institutions like the veche were abolished, and appanage princes were incorporated into the boyar class.[123] As a result, they became increasingly part of the service class.[122] Some historians have argued that a ruling class, which included the grand prince and leading boyars, governed the country by consultation and consensus-building.[124] Nancy Shields Kollmann in particular called it the "facade of autocracy" and applied the term to later Muscovite history.[124]

Foreign relations

[edit]

Golden Horde

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Relations between Moscow and the Golden Horde varied at times.[125] In the last two decades of the 13th century, Moscow gained the support of one of the rivaling Mongol statesmen, Nogai, against the principalities that were oriented towards the khan. After the restoration of unity in the Golden Horde in the early 14th century, Moscow generally enjoyed the favor of the khan until 1317 and 1322–1327.[125] For the following thirty years, when relations between the two parties improved, Moscow was able to achieve sufficient economic and political potential. Further attempts to deprive its rulers of the status of grand prince were unsuccessful after the Horde sank into internecine war and proved to be fruitless during the reign of a relatively powerful khan such as Mamai, whereas Tokhtamysh had no other choice but to recognize the supremacy of Moscow over the Russian principalities.[125] The traditional divide and conquer strategy of the Mongols failed, and the following period is characterized by a lack of support from the Horde.[125]

Although Moscow recognized the khan as its suzerain in the early years of the "Tatar yoke", despite certain acts of resistance and disobedience, it refused to acknowledge the khan's suzerainty in 1374–1380, 1396–1411, 1414–1416 and 1417–1419, even despite the growing power of the Golden Horde.[126] The power of the Horde over Moscow was greatly limited during the reign of Dmitry Donskoy, who gained recognition of the grand principality of Vladimir as a hereditary possession of the princes of Moscow; while the Horde continued to collect tribute, it could no longer have a serious impact on the internal structure of Russia.[127] During the reigns of Vasily II and Ivan III, the Moscow grand principality adopted the ideology of an Orthodox tsardom after the fall of Constantinople, which was incompatible with the recognition of suzerainty of the khan, and as a result, the grand prince began to declare the independence of Moscow in diplomatic relations with other countries.[128] This process was complete during the reign of Ivan III.[126]

Culture

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The Trinity, icon by Andrei Rublev (early 15th century)

A distinct school of icon painting was formed in Moscow in the second half of the 14th century, and would be led by Andrei Rublev, one of the most celebrated Russian icon painters.[129] Among his most notable works is The Trinity, which dates to the early 15th century.[129] The first original Russian school, the Suzdal school, was merged with the Moscow school in the early 15th century.[130] Igor Grabar said it could be distinguished by "a general tone, which is always cool, silvery, in contrast to Novgorodian painting which inevitably tends towards the warm, the yellowish, the golden".[131] Dionisius continued the traditions of Andrei Rublev and the Moscow school at the turn of the 16th century.[132] The art of the miniature in illuminated manuscripts also continued to develop in Moscow, with manuscripts like the Khitrovo Gospels containing rich illustrations.[132]

After the defeat of the Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo, heroic accounts of the battle were written with considerable artistry, including The Tale of the Battle with Mamai and Zadonshchina.[133] The latter crafted a proto-national myth about the need for unification against foreign enemies: "Let us lay down our lives for the Russian land and the Christian faith".[133]

Muscovite Russia was culturally influenced by Slavic and Byzantine cultural elements. In Muscovite Russia, supernaturalism was a fundamental part of daily life.[134]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Also known as Muscovy, derived from Latin: Moscovia.
  2. ^ Also translated as the Grand Duchy of Moscow.[2][3]
  3. ^ Upon the acquisition of the grand principality by Dmitry Ivanovich in 1363, the grand principality remained in the hands of the princes of Moscow and became a family possession, which was passed to Dmitry's son Vasily on his death in 1389.[4] At this point, the two thrones were permanently united.[5]
  4. ^ The old form is preserved in what has been designated as ethnically Russian. In addition, both forms are sometimes used in certain grammatical formations e.g. velikorossy ('Great Russians') and velikorusskaya when referring to language.[27]
  5. ^ Latin: Moscovia; French: Moscovie.
  6. ^ Two chronicles refer to Mikhail Khorobrit as "Mikhail of Moscow", but Daniel is usually considered to be the first prince of Moscow. On Mikhail's death in 1248, if it is assumed that an appanage principality was created, Moscow reverted as an escheat to the grand prince.[40]
  7. ^ According to John Fennell: "Had Daniil survived Andrey he would have been next in the line of succession. But in accordance with the laws of seniority a nephew was automatically debarred from the title if his father predeceased the ruling grand prince. Unwritten laws and tradition, however, were not sufficient to guarantee the legitimate heir his throne".[48]
  8. ^ The chronicle entry says: "In that year (1314) the men of Novgorod summoned a veche because they hated the namestniki of Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver', for they had suffered much offence and injury at their hands and they desired to expel them".[55]
  9. ^ It would not be until 1356–1357 that the Lithuanians would regain control of Bryansk, after which it would remain under Lithuanian control for the next century and a half.[86]
  10. ^ The Rogozh Chronicle says that Konstantin Vasilyevich "sat in Nizhny Novgorod [and] Gorodets upon the grand-princely throne", which indicates that he obtained the right to the title from the khan.[93]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Taagepera, Rein (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" (PDF). International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 498. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-07-07. Retrieved 2021-10-21.
  2. ^ A Short History of the USSR. Progress Publishers. 1965.
  3. ^ Florinsky, Michael T. (1965). Russia: a History and an Interpretation.
  4. ^ Howes 1967, p. 35.
  5. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 306, "But the most vivid proof of the assimilation of the thrones of Vladimir and Moscow is to be found in Dmitry Donskoy's will of 1389 in which he bequeaths Vladimir to his eldest son".
  6. ^ a b Fennell 2023, p. 47; Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 71.
  7. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 11.
  8. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 57; Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 71.
  9. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 72.
  10. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 73, "...he not only retained the office of grand prince, but also received the important commission of gathering tribute for the khan from other Russian princes. He used his increasing revenue to purchase more land".
  11. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 73; Crummey 2014, p. 40.
  12. ^ Fennell 2023, pp. 197, 306, "During the reign of Semen and, to a certain extent, during that of Ivan II the ground was prepared for the first 'gathering of the Russian lands' under Ivan II's son Dmitry Donskoy and for the latter's conversion of the principality of Moscow into the grand principality of Moscow, Vladimir and All Rus'".
  13. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, pp. 73–74.
  14. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 74, "As Moscow grew and as civil strife swept through the Golden Horde, Mongol hegemony in Russia experienced its first serious challenge since the time of the invasion".
  15. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 75.
  16. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, pp. 75–76.
  17. ^ Dukes 1998, p. 42, "By the accession of Ivan III in 1462, Moscow had become the political as well as the religious centre of the Russian lands. A considerable amount of ingathering remained to be accomplished... Ivan III's reign marks 'an important stage' in this process"; Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, pp. 77–79, "Under Ivan III 'the gathering of Russia' proceeded apace... All in all, Ivan III's successes in other Russian states and in foreign wars enormously increased his domain... Ivan III has been called the first national Russian sovereign".
  18. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 35, "The long reign of Ivan III, from 1462 to 1505, has generally been considered, together with the following reign of Vasilii III, as the termination of the appanage period and the beginning of a new age in Russian history, that of Muscovite Russia"; Sashalmi 2022, p. 61, "Muscovite Russia (dated from 1462 onwards)".
  19. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 78; Dukes 1998, p. 45.
  20. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 79; Dukes 1998, p. 45.
  21. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 116.
  22. ^ a b c "Moscow, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 23 November 2024. Moscow is first mentioned in Russian chronicles in 1147... the modern Russian form of its name, Moskva, dates from the 14th cent. The Old Russian name... is recorded as Moskov'. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  23. ^ "Muscovy, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 23 November 2024. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  24. ^ Kloss 2012, p. 3.
  25. ^ "ЗАДОНЩИНА". Medieval Russian Literature (in Russian). Translated by L. A. Dmitriev.
  26. ^ Zenkovsky 1963, pp. 211–228; Parppei 2017, p. 61.
  27. ^ a b Routledge Library Editions: Political Geography. Routledge. 23 June 2021. p. 349. ISBN 978-1-317-60078-7. Etymologically rossiiskii and Rossiia are Russified versions of the Latin (or Greek) words for Russian and Russia.
  28. ^ Obolensky, Dimitri (1971). "Commentary on the ninth chapter of Constantine Porphyrogenitus' De Administrando lmperio". Byzantium and the Slavs: Collected Studies. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-902089-14-3. Later, the term Ρωσία was borrowed by the Russians, in the form Rosiya, from the terminology used by the Byzantine Patriarchate.
  29. ^ Sashalmi 2022, p. 66, "The Latinized version of the title... resulted in the appearance of the term Russiia/Rossiia"; Bushkovitch 2011, p. 37, Precisely at this time in written usage the modern term Rossia (a literary expression borrowed from Greek) began to edge out the traditional and vernacular Rus"; Hellberg-Hirn 2019, p. 54, "In Russian historical sources, from the end of the 15th century onwards, the word Rossiia (Russia) is occasionally used..."; Kloss 2012, p. 13.
  30. ^ Kloss 2012, pp. 30–38.
  31. ^ Feldbrugge 2017, p. 775.
  32. ^ Riasanovsky 2005, p. 65; Feldbrugge 2017, p. 776, "...under Ivan III this title was converted into 'sovereign lord [gosudar'] of all Russia'.
  33. ^ Pape, Carsten (2016). "Titul Ivana III po datskim istochnikam pozdnego Srednevekov'ya" Титул Ивана III по датским источникам позднего Средневековья [The title of Ivan III according to late-medieval Danish sources]. Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana (in Russian). 20 (2). St. Petersburg: 65–75. doi:10.21638/11701/spbu19.2016.205. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
  34. ^ a b Riasanovsky 2005, p. 65.
  35. ^ Riasanovsky 2005, p. 66; Feldbrugge 2017, p. 775.
  36. ^ a b Хорошкевич, А. Л. (1976). "Россия и Московия: Из истории политико-географической терминологии" [Khoroshkevich A. L. Russia and Muscovy: from the history of politico-geographic terminology]. Acta Baltico-Slavica. X: 47–57.
  37. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 45.
  38. ^ a b c d Fennell 2023, p. 46.
  39. ^ Morby 2014, p. 169.
  40. ^ a b c d e Fennell 2023, p. 47.
  41. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 48.
  42. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 50.
  43. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 50; Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 71.
  44. ^ Fennell 2023, pp. 50–51; Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 71.
  45. ^ a b Fennell 2023, p. 51.
  46. ^ a b Fennell 2023, p. 55.
  47. ^ Dukes 1998, p. 28.
  48. ^ a b c Fennell 2023, p. 60.
  49. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 61.
  50. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 67.
  51. ^ Fennell 2023, pp. 67–68.
  52. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 68.
  53. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 73.
  54. ^ Martin 2007, p. 194; Fennell 2023, p. 75.
  55. ^ a b Fennell 2023, p. 75.
  56. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 76.
  57. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 81; Martin 2007, p. 194; Halperin 1987, pp. 71–72.
  58. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 83.
  59. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 85.
  60. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 86.
  61. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 87.
  62. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 92.
  63. ^ a b c Fennell 2023, p. 93.
  64. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 96; Crummey 2014, p. 39.
  65. ^ a b Fennell 2023, p. 96.
  66. ^ a b c Crummey 2014, p. 39.
  67. ^ Favereau 2021, p. 228.
  68. ^ a b c d Favereau 2021, p. 229.
  69. ^ a b c Crummey 2014, p. 40.
  70. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 160.
  71. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 165.
  72. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 169.
  73. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 182.
  74. ^ a b Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 73.
  75. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 145.
  76. ^ Fennell 2023, pp. 138, 144.
  77. ^ Favereau 2021, p. 229; Crummey 2014, p. 40.
  78. ^ a b Meyendorff 2010, p. 153.
  79. ^ Trepanier, Lee (2010). "2: Muscovite Russia (ca. 1240 – ca. 1505)". Political Symbols in Russian History: Church, State, and the Quest for Order and Justice. G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Lanhan, Maryland: Lexington Books. p. 31. ISBN 9780739117897. Retrieved 2016-12-14. But the crucial year was 1326, when [Metropolitan] Peter became a resident of Moscow and began to build his burial vault. On December 20, 1326, Metropolitan Peter died and was buried by one of the bishops in the presence of Ivan I. Due to his residency and burial place, Metropolitan Peter had confirmed Moscow the future haven of the Russian Orthodox Church, although this official transfer would not take place until the reign of Alexis.
  80. ^ a b c Meyendorff 2010, p. 156.
  81. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 192.
  82. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 196.
  83. ^ Fennell 2023, pp. 187–188.
  84. ^ a b Crummey 2014, p. 41.
  85. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 190.
  86. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 204.
  87. ^ a b Fennell 2023, p. 203.
  88. ^ Fennell 2023, pp. 208–209.
  89. ^ a b Crummey 2014, p. 42.
  90. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 209.
  91. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 211.
  92. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 212.
  93. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 214.
  94. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 213.
  95. ^ Fennell 2023, pp. 214–215.
  96. ^ a b c d Fennell 2023, p. 217.
  97. ^ Fennell 2023, pp. 170–171.
  98. ^ Fennell 2023, pp. 217, 283.
  99. ^ Fennell 2023, pp. 217–218.
  100. ^ a b c Fennell 2023, p. 218.
  101. ^ a b c d Fennell 2023, p. 298.
  102. ^ Crummey 2014, p. 43.
  103. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 299.
  104. ^ a b Fennell 2023, p. 300.
  105. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 300; Crummey 2014, p. 43.
  106. ^ a b Fennell 2023, p. 303.
  107. ^ Fennell 2023, p. 304.
  108. ^ a b c d Crummey 2014, p. 44.
  109. ^ Dukes 1998, p. 29.
  110. ^ a b c d e f Crummey 2014, p. 45.
  111. ^ a b c d e Crummey 2014, p. 46.
  112. ^ a b Crummey 2014, p. 47.
  113. ^ Richard Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime (1995), p.80.
  114. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 76.
  115. ^ Dukes 1998, p. 42; Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 77.
  116. ^ a b c d Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 77.
  117. ^ Wortman 2013, p. 10.
  118. ^ Trepanier, L. Political Symbols in Russian History: Church, State, and the Quest for Order and Justice. Lexington Books. 2010. p. 39
  119. ^ Crummey 2014, p. 92; Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 79.
  120. ^ Moss 2003, p. 88; Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 79; Dukes 1998, p. 45.
  121. ^ a b Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 80; Dukes 1998, p. 45.
  122. ^ a b c d Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 85.
  123. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 85; Bushkovitch 2021, p. 48.
  124. ^ a b Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 86.
  125. ^ a b c d Gorskij, A.A. (2000). Moskva i Orda (in Russian) (Naučnoe izd. ed.). Moskva: Nauka. p. 187. ISBN 978-5-02-010202-6. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
  126. ^ a b Gorskij, A.A. (2000). Moskva i Orda (in Russian) (Naučnoe izd. ed.). Moskva: Nauka. pp. 188–189. ISBN 978-5-02-010202-6. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
  127. ^ Gorskij, A.A. (2000). Moskva i Orda (in Russian) (Naučnoe izd. ed.). Moskva: Nauka. p. 189. ISBN 978-5-02-010202-6. Retrieved 5 December 2016.
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  129. ^ a b Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 102.
  130. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 100.
  131. ^ Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, pp. 100–101.
  132. ^ a b Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 103.
  133. ^ a b Riasanovsky & Steinberg 2019, p. 94.
  134. ^ Wigzell, Faith (2010-01-31). "Valerie A. Kivelson and Robert H. Greene (eds). Orthodox Russia: Belief and Practice under the Tsars". Folklorica. 9 (2): 169–171. doi:10.17161/folklorica.v9i2.3754. ISSN 1920-0242.

Bibliography

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Further reading

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